19th-Century Orientalism and Goethe: Exoticism vs. Dialogue
- Arda Tunca
- Mar 29
- 5 min read
Updated: Mar 31
The Orientalist trend in the late 19th century was driven by a combination of imperial expansion, technological advancements, artistic movements, and philosophical curiosity.
The 19th century was the height of European colonialism, with Britain, France, and other powers expanding into Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. This expansion led to increased contact with Eastern cultures, fueling a fascination with their art, music, and philosophies. However, Orientalism often depicted the East as mystical, exotic, and "other," a Eurocentric and often distorted perspective rather than an accurate representation. As Edward Said argued in Orientalism (1978), these portrayals often reinforced Western dominance by presenting the East as passive, irrational, and in need of Western governance.
Excavations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India (e.g., the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799) sparked global interest in ancient civilizations. Sanskrit texts, Persian poetry, and Chinese philosophy were increasingly studied in Western universities, shaping intellectual curiosity about Eastern traditions. The rise of comparative religion and anthropology led scholars to examine Eastern belief systems like Buddhism, Hinduism, and Daoism, which influenced Western thinkers such as Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche.
Steamships and railways made travel to the East faster and easier, allowing more Europeans to experience Eastern cultures firsthand. Photography and printing advances enabled the mass circulation of images, texts, and travel accounts about Eastern lands. However, these representations were often romanticized or exaggerated, reinforcing Western fantasies about the Orient as a place of sensuality, decadence, and mystery.
The Romantic movement (early 19th century) valued emotion, imagination, and the unknown elements often projected onto the East. Composers, painters, and writers used the East as an escape from the perceived rigidity of Western modernity. For instance, Claude Debussy was influenced by Javanese gamelan music, and Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade (1888) was inspired by Arabian Nights. Writers such as Gustave Flaubert (Salammbô), Rudyard Kipling (Kim), and Pierre Loti (Madame Chrysanthème) painted exoticized visions of the Orient that blended fact with fiction. Painters like Eugène Delacroix and Jean-Léon Gérôme created elaborate Orientalist scenes featuring harems, slave markets, and grand bazaars, reinforcing the Western gaze on Eastern subjects.
Victor Hugo was also one of the writers influenced by the Orientalist trends of the 19th century. His fascination with the exotic and the East can be seen in works like "Les Orientales," where he explored themes and imagery inspired by the Middle East and North Africa.
Victor Hugo had a notable connection to China, particularly through his strong opposition to the looting of the Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan) in Beijing by British and French troops during the Second Opium War in 1860.
In 1861, Hugo wrote a famous letter condemning the destruction of the palace, calling it a "crime" and describing it as an act of barbarism. He lamented the loss of the magnificent cultural heritage and treasures that had been taken to Europe. This letter is often cited as an example of his humanist and anti-colonial stance.
While Hugo never visited China, his writings and opinions on the country's cultural heritage, as well as his broader concerns about imperialism, demonstrate a significant intellectual connection. His letter remains well-known in China, where he is respected for his moral stance against Western colonial actions.
The late 19th century saw a rejection of strict classical structures in favor of new scales, harmonies, and rhythms. Many composers turned to non-Western musical elements, believing them to be more "pure" or "unspoiled" by European academic traditions.
After Japan opened to the West in the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japanese art (e.g., woodblock prints) became hugely popular in Europe. Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, and others incorporated Japanese artistic styles into their works, influencing music as well. Puccini’s Madama Butterfly (1904) is an example of Japonisme in opera.
Richard Wagner’s idea of total art (Gesamtkunstwerk) and mythological storytelling inspired composers to seek new narrative sources, including Eastern stories. Composers like Carl Nielsen, Maurice Ravel, and Claude Debussy adapted these ideas but incorporated Eastern themes.
Movements like Theosophy (founded by Helena Blavatsky in 1875) promoted Eastern mysticism and esoteric knowledge. Intellectuals and artists explored Hindu and Buddhist philosophy, which influenced composers’ ideas about musical structure and expression.
The Orientalist trend of the late 19th century was a result of imperialism, artistic curiosity, and a reaction against Western rationalism. While it led to fascinating artistic innovations, it was also shaped by Eurocentric stereotypes and romanticized depictions of the East, rather than genuine cultural exchange.
A more nuanced understanding of Orientalism requires acknowledging both its artistic contributions and its problematic foundations, recognizing the need for genuine cultural exchange rather than one-sided representation.
Orientalism was an artistic trend in the 19th century. However, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who lived much earlier than Orientalism was spreading in the Western world, was very much interested in the East. Yet, his approach to the East was very different from the interpretation of the East in the 19th century Orientalism.
Goethe’s West-östlicher Divan (1819) reflected a deep respect for Persian poetry, particularly the works of Hafiz, and emphasized a dialogue between cultures rather than an exoticized representation. Unlike later Orientalist trends that often viewed the East through a colonial lens, Goethe's approach was one of admiration and intellectual curiosity, seeking synthesis rather than domination.
Goethe’s interest in Hafiz and Persian poetry was not rooted in colonialism or European imperial expansion, as it was in the late 19th-century Orientalist movement, but rather in intellectual, literary, and philosophical factors unique to his time. His engagement with Hafiz and Persian culture can be understood through several key influences.
Goethe (1749–1832) was part of the German Romantic movement, which sought inspiration in nature, spirituality, and foreign cultures. Unlike later European Orientalism, his fascination with the East was not about exoticizing it, but about seeking universal wisdom. He saw Hafiz not as "the other" but as a spiritual and poetic equal, someone whose works transcended time and place.
Goethe was a cosmopolitan thinker who sought to bridge cultures rather than dominate them. He coined the term Weltliteratur (world literature), advocating for a global literary dialogue where cultures would learn from one another. His interest in Hafiz reflected his belief in the universality of poetry and the shared human experience across civilizations.
Hafiz (c. 1315–1390), the great Persian poet, was admired in Europe for his lyrical intensity, mysticism, and humanist themes. Goethe discovered Hafiz through orientalist scholars like Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, who translated Persian poetry into German. Hafiz’s poetic form (ghazals) and themes of love, nature, and divine ecstasy resonated deeply with Goethe’s own literary aspirations.
Goethe’s later years saw a shift toward spirituality and mysticism, and Persian Sufi poetry aligned with his evolving worldview. Hafiz’s verses often speak of love, intoxication, and divine unity, themes that Goethe found liberating and profound. His West-östlicher Divan (1819) was a poetic response to Hafiz, blending Persian-inspired themes with his own reflections on life, love, and nature.
By the early 19th century, Europe was in turmoil due to the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). Goethe may have seen Eastern literature as a means of stepping outside the chaos of European politics and finding a broader, more timeless perspective. Unlike in the late 19th century, when Orientalism was often linked to imperial dominance, Goethe’s time (late 18th–early 19th century) was different. Germany was not a colonial power and had no direct colonial interests in the East. His interest in Persian literature was not political or exploitative but intellectual and philosophical.
Goethe’s engagement with Hafiz was driven by a genuine admiration for Persian poetry, a desire for intercultural dialogue, and his evolving spiritual and poetic sensibilities. Unlike later European Orientalists, he did not view the East as "exotic" but as a cultural equal, emphasizing mutual respect and shared artistic expression. His work on the West-östlicher Divan remains one of the most remarkable early examples of true cross-cultural literary appreciation.
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