Spinoza’s Foundation: Human Nature, Reason, and the Necessity of the State

Introduction

Baruch Spinoza’s Political Treatise (Tractatus Politicus), though unfinished at his death in 1677, stands as a seminal work in early modern political philosophy. Building upon ideas from his earlier Theological-Political Treatise (1670), Spinoza endeavors to establish a rational and naturalistic basis for political authority, distinct from theological or monarchical doctrines. Central to his political theory is a realistic understanding of human nature, the role of reason, and the necessity of the state.

Political Treatise was written in the wake of the Dutch Republic’s political turmoil, including the execution of the De Witt brothers and the rise of the House of Orange. Its goal was to establish a rational and naturalistic basis for political authority, distinct from theology or monarchical divine right.

Spinoza aims to show how political order and freedom can coexist, grounded in human nature. For Spinoza, reason is not our natural starting point. It is a capacity we develop under certain conditions, not an inherent guide to action.

Source: https://www.amazon.com/Political-Treatise-Tractatus-Politicus/dp/1533498148

Spinoza argues that political theory must begin from a realistic understanding of human nature. Humans are guided primarily by emotions and self-interest, not reason. Because people cannot live peacefully solely by the dictates of reason, a state is necessary to channel their desires into stable social cooperation.

In Spinoza’s world, monarchy is concentration of power in one person, but limited by advisory councils. He is skeptical of its sustainability. Aristocracy is rule by an elite, which can work if power is distributed through institutions. Democracy, though unfinished, is as the best form of government because it is most consistent with freedom and reason. Importantly, Spinoza’s democracy is not merely majority rule but participation based on equality under natural law.

Freedom is not the absence of law, but the ability to live by the guidance of reason within a well-ordered state. Obedience to the law is not slavery if the laws are rational and aim at the common good. A citizen remains free when they obey laws they would rationally choose themselves.

Human Nature: Passions Over Reason

Spinoza posits that humans are primarily guided by emotions and self-interest rather than reason. He introduces the concept of "psychological naturalism," asserting that individuals cannot live peacefully solely by the dictates of reason. This necessitates the formation of a state to channel human desires into stable social cooperation.

Spinoza's psychological naturalism posits that human emotions and behaviors can be understood through the same causal principles that govern the natural world. As he asserts in Ethics, "Each thing, as far as it lies in itself, strives to persevere in its being," introducing the concept of “conatus” as central to his philosophy. This approach is further elaborated in scholarly analyses, which emphasize Spinoza's commitment to explaining human psychology through naturalistic and deterministic frameworks.

Unlike Hobbes, who views sovereignty as absolute submission to a ruler out of fear, Spinoza believes that sovereignty lies with the people, even in monarchies and aristocracies. Authority, for Spinoza, derives from collective agreement or power, not divine right. The state must preserve both peace and rational freedom, enabling individuals to live securely and develop their rational capacities.

The Concept of “Conatus” and Irrational Self-Preservation

In Spinoza's framework, every being possesses a "conatus," an innate striving to persist in its own being. For humans, this manifests as self-preservation, often in irrational and socially disruptive ways. Spinoza maintains a deterministic view of human beings. they are not born rational but are driven by passions, desires, and affects such as fear, hope, and ambition. These passions frequently lead to conflict, competition, and domination. Reason, therefore, is not our natural starting point but a capacity we develop under certain conditions.

What is reason, then?

Reason as a Developed Capacity

Reason (ratio) is the ability to understand things through their causes, forming adequate ideas. Acting from reason allows individuals to see themselves as part of nature, grasp what is truly useful, and understand that well-being depends on cooperation with others. Reason, therefore, leads to sociability, justice, and peace.

Spinoza argues that while human nature in its raw state is irrational, reason can be cultivated. The state serves as the tool for this cultivation, not to suppress freedom but to create conditions where people can live safely enough to become more rational.

Spinoza recognizes that human nature in its raw state is irrational. Yet, he argues that reason can be cultivated, and that the state is the tool for doing so. The purpose of the state is not to suppress freedom but to create conditions where people can live safely enough to become more rational.

Spinoza states in Ethics: "The knowledge of an effect depends on, and involves, the knowledge of its cause."

The Role of the State

Spinoza asserts that the purpose of the state is not to dominate men or restrain them by fear but to free each person from fear so that they may live in all possible security. This resolves the apparent “contradiction” in his philosophy.

Humans are irrational by nature, but political structures based on reason can nurture reason, leading to freedom. Since most people act from passion, a functioning state must anticipate irrationality in its design, promote rational behavior through education, freedom of speech, and civil order, and ensure peace so individuals can live and think freely.

Spinoza places strong emphasis on education because he believes that while humans are inherently driven by passions and self-interest, they possess the capacity for reason, which can be cultivated. Education is the primary means through which individuals can develop this capacity, enabling them to live in accordance with reason and contribute to a rational society.

In Spinoza's view, the state plays a crucial role in facilitating this educational process. By providing security and stability, the state creates an environment where individuals can pursue knowledge and self-improvement. This aligns with his broader political philosophy, where the purpose of the state is not to dominate or restrain individuals by fear, but to empower them to live freely and rationally.

Therefore, education is not merely about acquiring information but is integral to personal and collective freedom. Through education, individuals learn to understand their emotions, make reasoned decisions, and participate effectively in democratic governance. This process transforms the natural state of human irrationality into a society guided by reason and mutual understanding.

Spinoza writes Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (1670): "The ultimate aim of government is not to rule, or restrain, by fear, nor to exact obedience, but contrariwise, to free every man from fear, that he may live in all possible security; in other words, to strengthen his natural right to exist and work without injury to himself or others."

This passage underscores Spinoza's view that the state's role is to create conditions where individuals can live securely and develop their rational capacities.

Spinoza further elaborates on the state's purpose in Tractatus Politicus (Political Treatise - 1677): "The last end of the state is not to dominate men, nor to restrain them by fear; rather it is so to free each man from fear that he may live and act with full security and without injury to himself or his neighbor."

Democracy and Rational Freedom

Spinoza favors democracy, viewing it as the best form of government because it aligns with reason. Democracy allows the "multitude" to participate in governance, increasing the chance that common decisions reflect the common good.

Importantly, Spinoza's democracy is not merely majority rule but participation based on equality under natural law. Freedom, in his view, is not the absence of law but the ability to live by the guidance of reason within a well-ordered state.

Obedience to the law is not slavery if the laws are rational and aim at the common good. A citizen remains free when they obey laws they would rationally choose themselves.

Spinoza’s Concept of Human Nature

Concept	Spinoza's Position
Human Nature	Primarily passionate, self-interested, irrational
Reason	A potential within us, not the default mode
Role of the State	To enable people to live securely so they can develop reason
Goal	A rational society where individuals act freely and collectively for the common good

Conclusion

Spinoza's political philosophy offers a realistic and naturalistic approach to understanding human nature and the role of the state. By acknowledging the predominance of passions over reason in human behavior, he emphasizes the necessity of a state that fosters the development of reason, leading to true freedom. His advocacy for democracy and rational governance continues to influence contemporary political thought (somewhat without success).