Introduction The history of Halicarnassus is often approached through its later prominence as a dynastic capital  under the Hecatomnids and as a key site in Alexander the Great’s campaign. Such a perspective, however, risks projecting the characteristics of a fourth-century BCE urban center backward onto a much earlier and structurally different landscape. Before the rise of Halicarnassus as a political capital, the peninsula  belonged to a decentralized regional system shape

Introduction The history of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) cannot be understood merely as the history of a Greek coastal city in western Anatolia. From the sixth to the fourth centuries BCE, the city existed within overlapping political, cultural, and economic systems that linked the Aegean world, the Anatolian interior, and the imperial structures of the Achaemenid Persian Empire . Rather than functioning as a peripheral settlement at the margins of larger political formation

In the late 2000s and early 2010s, I used to travel to Sudan from time to time for certain business projects. It never occurred to me how eye-opening what I would see and experience in an underdeveloped country like Sudan could be. When I first landed in Sudan, the airport was covered everywhere with advertising posters of world-famous hotels. Familiar logos, familiar names. Yet the airport itself was terrible, with cats roaming all over the place. The cats were of a kind I h

For over four centuries, the Ottoman Empire governed  population movement as a routine component of administrative order. Warfare, fiscal extraction, frontier security, environmental pressures, and centralized planning continuously displaced and recombined populations  across Anatolia, the Balkans, the Black Sea steppe, and the Caucasus. In this context, mobility functioned not as an exceptional disruption but as a regular instrument of imperial governance . Through sustained

Abstract This article examines the major population movements that reshaped Anatolia  and Rumelia  between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries. Building on the political and institutional context outlined in Ottomans and Karamanids , it analyzes the long-term repercussions of Ottoman expansion, the application and evolution of forced relocation (sürgün), the demographic effects of the Celâlî rebellions, migrations driven by Ottoman–Safavid frontier dynamics, and the large-

This article examines the political, cultural, and linguistic contrasts between the Ottoman Empire and the Karamanid principality, two major Anatolian powers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. By evaluating their respective administrative structures, social compositions, and identity formations, it identifies the distinct trajectories of these two polities. The article also surveys the ethnic and religious groups living under both systems and analyzes the sürgün (forc

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