The concept of God  has long served as one of the central organizing ideas  of Western philosophy . For centuries, theological and philosophical reflection  treated the divine as the foundation  of both the natural order and the moral order. Yet beginning in the early modern period , this concept underwent profound transformation. Two thinkers stand at critical moments in this transition: Baruch Spinoza and Friedrich Nietzsche. The enduring influence of Spinoza’s conception o

This article examines the pivotal role of Roger Bacon in the transformation of Western epistemology from medieval scholasticism  to the foundations of modern scientific and mechanistic thought. It argues that Bacon’s elevation of experiment and mathematics as epistemic authorities initiated a structural division between reason and experience that later emerged philosophically as the distinction  between a priori and a posteriori knowledge in Kant. The study explains Aristotle